The Great Trek of the Russian Mennonites to Central Asia, 1880-1884, Fred Richard Belk, 1976

- men lords. Bukhara and Khiva knew much trouble throughout their early development." Nevertheless, both khanates enjoyed a steady expansion of economic life." Their farmers grew wheat, rice, cotton, silk, and a variety of vegetables and fruits that supplied the entire area. The nomads were breeders of horses, camels, cattle, and sheep. Very early in the sixteenth century Russia became dependent on these commodities from Central Asia. Guilds were formed to protect farmer and nomad alike from unfair exploitation, yet the khans re- mained authoritarian and controlled not only trade with all coun- tries but also received taxes on all products leaving the country." Any semblance of a permanent centralized authority in Central Asia was impossible, however, and feudalism similar to that of medieval Europe began to develop. Independent provincial govern- nors, called beks, ruled in a tyrannical, oppressive way like the nobles of Europe. Even the Muslim ‘‘clergy’’ became involved in feudalism. Caravan trade routes, in decline because of European sea discoveries, further pushed the area into backwardness. All real estate and water was owned by feudal lords, and thus the serfs were made very dependent upon them. For example, Sheik Khodshi-Ismail owned several hundred small and large manors all over Central Asia. He had huge herds and many slaves. Clerics were his caravan masters The Province of Turkestan 67 The Uzbeks of Turkestan were Sunnite Muslims characterized chiefly by agricultural pursuits and life in towns, although some were nomads. 68 The Great Trek of the Russian Mennonites in trade with Russia, and he became one of the richest men of his day.'7 Class conflict was inevitable and plagued the khanates for centuries.'* Entering upon a period of decline in the eighteenth century, the khanates became weak as intertribal wars destroyed cities, irrigation projects, and farmlands. Russian Imperialism This vacuum of authority permitted Russia, a great imperialistic power, to extend its control over Turkestan. One neglected topic in Russian history, and one of its most interesting, is the expansion of Russia's Central Asian frontiers and their colonization. Russian attempts to establish relations with Central Asia can be traced back to the sixteenth century when Robert Jenkinson, an English merchant in the service of Ivan the Terrible, went to Turkestan to begin trade.'® From this small beginning, Russia was to launch a sustained effort to absorb Central Asia. After the accession of Peter the Great as czar in 1689, limited inroads were made into Central Asia, but he was far more active in expanding the empire in Europe and other parts of Asia. Upon his death in 1725, Russia controlled almost two million square miles in Europe and over four million square miles in Asia.2° Russia's push to the southeast, a part of an irrepressible urge to expand, was primarily rooted in a predatory Cossack sp